LYME TRANSMISSION: Role of Birds as Vectors & Reservoir Hosts in Borrelia (Lyme)
Including examination of I. uriae (seabird) & I. auritulus (bird) ticks
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Including examination of I. uriae (seabird)
& I. auritulus (bird) ticks |
Including examination of H. longicornis
(scrub/bush) & H. bispinosa ticks |
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Birds as Vector and Reservoir Hosts
In This Section:
* An examination of seabirds and landbirds and how they are involved in the Borrelia cycle. Discussed with a focus on the Ixodes Uriae (Seabird), Ixodes Auritulus (Bird) Ticks and their bird hosts. |
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Role of Birds as Vector and Reservoir Hosts in Borrelia (Lyme)
Birds can be both vector (tick hosts) and reservoir (carry the bacteria in their blood) hosts in the spread and maintenance of Lyme Borreliosis. The following outlines a number of bird species that have been found to be reservoir hosts of Borrelia, as well as examines their role in spreading the vectors, ticks, across countries/continents.
While the presence of Lyme disease continues to be denied in Australia due to one study conducted in 1994 and the fact that we don't have any of the first four ticks that were initially identified as vectors of Lyme disease in the Northern hemisphere, (as has been outlined in the Transmission and Maintenance section / Tick Vector Table), we do have a number of ticks present in Australia that have since been identified as tick vectors of Borrelia. These include the Ixode Uriae (seabird) and I. auritulus (bird) ticks.
As these are both bird ticks, their role in the Borrelia cycle is discussed in conjunction with bird hosts that have been shown to be either simply hosts/carriers of the tick, or those that are also reservoir hosts of the Borrelia bacteria. Also discussed are various birds that have been introduced into Australia, and are known reservoir hosts of Borrelia in the Northern Hemisphere.
While the presence of Lyme disease continues to be denied in Australia due to one study conducted in 1994 and the fact that we don't have any of the first four ticks that were initially identified as vectors of Lyme disease in the Northern hemisphere, (as has been outlined in the Transmission and Maintenance section / Tick Vector Table), we do have a number of ticks present in Australia that have since been identified as tick vectors of Borrelia. These include the Ixode Uriae (seabird) and I. auritulus (bird) ticks.
As these are both bird ticks, their role in the Borrelia cycle is discussed in conjunction with bird hosts that have been shown to be either simply hosts/carriers of the tick, or those that are also reservoir hosts of the Borrelia bacteria. Also discussed are various birds that have been introduced into Australia, and are known reservoir hosts of Borrelia in the Northern Hemisphere.
Examination of Ixode Ticks and Bird species involved in the Borrelia cycle in Australia
The role of the seabird (I. uriae) and bird (I. auritulus) ticks is to maintain and/or spread the Borrelia bacteria to the animal hosts within their environment. However, unlike nest dwelling ticks whose ecosystem is limited, the fact that birds are the host of these tick species has widespread ramifications. Birds can be both biological carriers (reservoir hosts) of many different pathogens including Borrelia (1), as well as parasitic carriers of blood sucking insects such as ticks. Anderson and Magnarelli first reported the importance of birds as reservoir hosts and their role in transmitting the Borrelia bacteria and ticks into new geographic areas in 1984 (2). In combination this means that not only can birds drop infected ticks into new environments (3-8), but as reservoir hosts, immature ticks that feed on them may become infected and spread the disease to other birds and mammals during their next feed.
Land birds can spread Borrelia across continents, while migrating seabirds can spread the disease across the Northern and Southern hemispheres (9-16). It must also be noted that while the primary role of I. uriae appears to be the widespread dispersal of Borrelia, these ticks are known to bite humans (17-18) and are the suggested vector for human disease on the Faroe Islands (18).
Land birds can spread Borrelia across continents, while migrating seabirds can spread the disease across the Northern and Southern hemispheres (9-16). It must also be noted that while the primary role of I. uriae appears to be the widespread dispersal of Borrelia, these ticks are known to bite humans (17-18) and are the suggested vector for human disease on the Faroe Islands (18).
Seabird Tick Ixodes uriae and Associated Bird Vector & Reservoir Hosts
The I. uriae species is found Australia-wide, including offshore islands (19). It is prevalent in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres and is “closely associated with many species of colony-nesting marine birds” (20). In 1993 Olsen and others (20) extended on the finding that land-birds as well as mammals could be infected by Borrelia, with their research revealing that even in the absence of mammals, Borrelia was maintained by seabirds within the environment. A further study in 1995 (21) revealed “a significant role for seabirds in a global transmission cycle by demonstrating the presence of Lyme disease Borrelia spirochetes in Ixodes uriae ticks from several seabird colonies in both the Southern and Northern Hemispheres.” It was noted that: “Of particular interest is the finding of suspected cases of Lyme disease in Australia and South Africa, although no Lyme disease-causing spirochete has been isolated from these regions yet. Most of the findings in Australia are based on serological data and clinical cases with symptoms typical of Lyme disease. Our finding of Borrelia DNA in I. uriae ticks obtained from the Crozet Islands and Campbell Island [New Zealand coast] suggests that Lyme disease enzootic foci are present in that part of the world” (21: pge 3272-3).
There are numerous species of marine birds that migrate between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres to Australia, as well as birds that migrate between New Zealand and Australia each year. In fact, of the 359 species of marine birds worldwide, 78 different species breed on Australian islands and shores. In comparison to other countries, Australia is second only to New Zealand who, with 84 species has the greatest diversity of marine birds anywhere in the world (22). These marine birds are generally broken down into two classes, either seabird or shorebird / wader families (23-25). The seabirds consist of around 20 species and are those that are most commonly found on, over, or near the ocean and include birds such as, shearwaters (more commonly known as mutton birds), albatrosses, penguins, frigatebirds, gulls, cormorants and terns. Some seabirds (such as cormorants) may also be found in other areas surrounding water, such as lakes and wetlands and can become common in urban areas. Shorebirds / waders are those which are commonly found on coastal shores, including beaches, rocky shores, mudflats, tidal wetlands and lagoons. These include many species of plovers, sandpipers, stilts, curlews and snipes.
In Australia (and many other countries) seabirds and shorebirds are not restricted to separate areas and share many locations with each other as well as land birds and mammals, including humans: “Some seabird colonies are very accessible to large numbers of people. This is especially true of small islands in mainland estuaries or islands that are linked to the mainland in some way or are close to big cities (26: pge 74)”. The shorebirds from the East Asian-Australasian Flyways alone have 118 internationally important sites that encompass the coastline as well numerous inland areas of Australia (27: Fig 20; pge 210), whilst seabirds nest in many areas on the mainland, as well as on numerous islands off almost every state in Australia.
(See Attachment A – Seabird areas for more specific locations, including those on mainland Australia)
Seabirds such as the Sooty and Short-tailed Shearwaters, Common and Little Tern, Gulls, and shorebirds such as; Bar tailed Godwits, Red Knots, Sandpipers, Curlews and Snipes migrate to Australia from California, Europe, Asia (including Russia) and Japan (26-34). Lyme disease is endemic in all of these regions. With over 20 million migrating seabirds and 3 million plus shore-birds breeding on Australian Islands and shores each year, it is inconceivable that the health departments of Australia continue to ignore the long established knowledge that “Migrating birds contribute to the spread of B. burgdorferi sl and of infected tick vectors along migration routes” (35: pge 70).
Along with the seabird tick (I. uriae), a number of different tick species (eg: I. auritulus, I. dentatus, I. frontalis, H. flava, H. leporispalustris) have been associated with Borrelia and different bird hosts. Of interest for Australia is the finding that the I. auritulus tick is a vector of Borrelia (36-38).
The I. uriae species is found Australia-wide, including offshore islands (19). It is prevalent in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres and is “closely associated with many species of colony-nesting marine birds” (20). In 1993 Olsen and others (20) extended on the finding that land-birds as well as mammals could be infected by Borrelia, with their research revealing that even in the absence of mammals, Borrelia was maintained by seabirds within the environment. A further study in 1995 (21) revealed “a significant role for seabirds in a global transmission cycle by demonstrating the presence of Lyme disease Borrelia spirochetes in Ixodes uriae ticks from several seabird colonies in both the Southern and Northern Hemispheres.” It was noted that: “Of particular interest is the finding of suspected cases of Lyme disease in Australia and South Africa, although no Lyme disease-causing spirochete has been isolated from these regions yet. Most of the findings in Australia are based on serological data and clinical cases with symptoms typical of Lyme disease. Our finding of Borrelia DNA in I. uriae ticks obtained from the Crozet Islands and Campbell Island [New Zealand coast] suggests that Lyme disease enzootic foci are present in that part of the world” (21: pge 3272-3).
There are numerous species of marine birds that migrate between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres to Australia, as well as birds that migrate between New Zealand and Australia each year. In fact, of the 359 species of marine birds worldwide, 78 different species breed on Australian islands and shores. In comparison to other countries, Australia is second only to New Zealand who, with 84 species has the greatest diversity of marine birds anywhere in the world (22). These marine birds are generally broken down into two classes, either seabird or shorebird / wader families (23-25). The seabirds consist of around 20 species and are those that are most commonly found on, over, or near the ocean and include birds such as, shearwaters (more commonly known as mutton birds), albatrosses, penguins, frigatebirds, gulls, cormorants and terns. Some seabirds (such as cormorants) may also be found in other areas surrounding water, such as lakes and wetlands and can become common in urban areas. Shorebirds / waders are those which are commonly found on coastal shores, including beaches, rocky shores, mudflats, tidal wetlands and lagoons. These include many species of plovers, sandpipers, stilts, curlews and snipes.
In Australia (and many other countries) seabirds and shorebirds are not restricted to separate areas and share many locations with each other as well as land birds and mammals, including humans: “Some seabird colonies are very accessible to large numbers of people. This is especially true of small islands in mainland estuaries or islands that are linked to the mainland in some way or are close to big cities (26: pge 74)”. The shorebirds from the East Asian-Australasian Flyways alone have 118 internationally important sites that encompass the coastline as well numerous inland areas of Australia (27: Fig 20; pge 210), whilst seabirds nest in many areas on the mainland, as well as on numerous islands off almost every state in Australia.
(See Attachment A – Seabird areas for more specific locations, including those on mainland Australia)
Seabirds such as the Sooty and Short-tailed Shearwaters, Common and Little Tern, Gulls, and shorebirds such as; Bar tailed Godwits, Red Knots, Sandpipers, Curlews and Snipes migrate to Australia from California, Europe, Asia (including Russia) and Japan (26-34). Lyme disease is endemic in all of these regions. With over 20 million migrating seabirds and 3 million plus shore-birds breeding on Australian Islands and shores each year, it is inconceivable that the health departments of Australia continue to ignore the long established knowledge that “Migrating birds contribute to the spread of B. burgdorferi sl and of infected tick vectors along migration routes” (35: pge 70).
Along with the seabird tick (I. uriae), a number of different tick species (eg: I. auritulus, I. dentatus, I. frontalis, H. flava, H. leporispalustris) have been associated with Borrelia and different bird hosts. Of interest for Australia is the finding that the I. auritulus tick is a vector of Borrelia (36-38).
Bird Tick Ixodes auritulus and Associated Bird & Reservoir Hosts
The I. auritulus is a native tick species of Tasmania (39-41). Birds continually spread the known distribution range of ticks (eg: 37-38) and as numerous species of birds, such as the Silvereye (Zosterops lateralis: passerine), migrate from Tasmania and disperse into regions of Victoria, New South Wales and south-eastern Queensland, there certainly is the high possibility that this tick has been spread throughout mainland Australia. The common blackbird (passeriforme) is also abundant in Tasmania (and other areas of Australia), and is a bird that has been regularly identified as a reservoir host of Borrelia.
Birds of the Passeriforme order, or passerine birds, are more commonly known as perching or song birds (42), and include over 5000 species grouped into approximately 110 families that may be partially (travelling long distances within the same continent) or fully (travelling across continents) migratory. Numerous passerine species have been identified as reservoir hosts of Borrelia and include; Robins, Thrushes, Redstarts (formerly thrush family), Sparrows and Tits (eg:2, 9-11,38-40). Thrushes (Turdiae family) appear to be extremely competent reservoir hosts: Borrelia is thought to have been introduced into Japan from two species of thrush (Turdus cardis and pallidus) that migrate from Asia (43-45), while Song thrushes (Turdus philomelos) and the Eurasian / Common Blackbirds (Turdus merula) are consistently found to be competent reservoir hosts of Borrelia in Europe (46-49).
Song thrushes (Turdus philomelos) and the Eurasian / Common Blackbirds (Turdus merula) have been introduced into Australia: Song thrushes are established in Melbourne after being introduced in the 1850’s. The Eurasian / Common blackbirds were introduced into Melbourne and South Australia in the 1860’s and 1870s and are now widespread. They range throughout coastal and lower inland regions of South Australia, the whole of Victoria and New South Wales and spread into Queensland in 1986, breeding in regions around Toowoomba and the Highfields (50-52). They are also “abundant in Tasmania and have successfully colonised offshore islands such as Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, Kangaroo Island and Flinders Island” (50: pge 8).
It appears that at least one government department in Australia is aware that Blackbirds can carry Borrelia species underlying Lyme disease. A risk assessment report from the Queensland State Government (Biosecurity Queensland), examining the potential spread of Blackbirds into Queensland, makes this note with regards to the diseases associated with Blackbirds: “Blackbirds are often infected with intestinal and haematozoan parasites, as well as external parasites such as ticks, which can then infect other blackbirds with illnesses such as Lyme disease” (50: pge 7). Unfortunately, they do not seem to understand the full impact of that statement, which is, that the ticks are able to infect more than other blackbirds with pathogens. The ticks feed on both bird and mammal hosts and can also spread the Lyme disease bacteria to other animals within the environment, including humans.
There is the possibility that the Borrelia bacteria was brought to Australia with the introduction of blackbirds. However, the presence of the Blackbirds in Tasmania, mainland coastal areas and offshore islands of Australia would no doubt mean that the largest threat of the Blackbirds (and the other reservoir hosts) acquiring and spreading Borrelia to other animals and birds would come from sharing the environment with the millions of marine birds that migrate to Australia each year.
In addition to the song thrushes and common blackbirds (Passeriformes), other species of birds that have been introduced into Australia, and are competent reservoir hosts of Borrelia, include birds from the order of Galliformes: wild turkeys (53), pheasants (54-55), quails (56) and Anseriformes: Mallard ducks (57).
The I. auritulus is a native tick species of Tasmania (39-41). Birds continually spread the known distribution range of ticks (eg: 37-38) and as numerous species of birds, such as the Silvereye (Zosterops lateralis: passerine), migrate from Tasmania and disperse into regions of Victoria, New South Wales and south-eastern Queensland, there certainly is the high possibility that this tick has been spread throughout mainland Australia. The common blackbird (passeriforme) is also abundant in Tasmania (and other areas of Australia), and is a bird that has been regularly identified as a reservoir host of Borrelia.
Birds of the Passeriforme order, or passerine birds, are more commonly known as perching or song birds (42), and include over 5000 species grouped into approximately 110 families that may be partially (travelling long distances within the same continent) or fully (travelling across continents) migratory. Numerous passerine species have been identified as reservoir hosts of Borrelia and include; Robins, Thrushes, Redstarts (formerly thrush family), Sparrows and Tits (eg:2, 9-11,38-40). Thrushes (Turdiae family) appear to be extremely competent reservoir hosts: Borrelia is thought to have been introduced into Japan from two species of thrush (Turdus cardis and pallidus) that migrate from Asia (43-45), while Song thrushes (Turdus philomelos) and the Eurasian / Common Blackbirds (Turdus merula) are consistently found to be competent reservoir hosts of Borrelia in Europe (46-49).
Song thrushes (Turdus philomelos) and the Eurasian / Common Blackbirds (Turdus merula) have been introduced into Australia: Song thrushes are established in Melbourne after being introduced in the 1850’s. The Eurasian / Common blackbirds were introduced into Melbourne and South Australia in the 1860’s and 1870s and are now widespread. They range throughout coastal and lower inland regions of South Australia, the whole of Victoria and New South Wales and spread into Queensland in 1986, breeding in regions around Toowoomba and the Highfields (50-52). They are also “abundant in Tasmania and have successfully colonised offshore islands such as Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, Kangaroo Island and Flinders Island” (50: pge 8).
It appears that at least one government department in Australia is aware that Blackbirds can carry Borrelia species underlying Lyme disease. A risk assessment report from the Queensland State Government (Biosecurity Queensland), examining the potential spread of Blackbirds into Queensland, makes this note with regards to the diseases associated with Blackbirds: “Blackbirds are often infected with intestinal and haematozoan parasites, as well as external parasites such as ticks, which can then infect other blackbirds with illnesses such as Lyme disease” (50: pge 7). Unfortunately, they do not seem to understand the full impact of that statement, which is, that the ticks are able to infect more than other blackbirds with pathogens. The ticks feed on both bird and mammal hosts and can also spread the Lyme disease bacteria to other animals within the environment, including humans.
There is the possibility that the Borrelia bacteria was brought to Australia with the introduction of blackbirds. However, the presence of the Blackbirds in Tasmania, mainland coastal areas and offshore islands of Australia would no doubt mean that the largest threat of the Blackbirds (and the other reservoir hosts) acquiring and spreading Borrelia to other animals and birds would come from sharing the environment with the millions of marine birds that migrate to Australia each year.
In addition to the song thrushes and common blackbirds (Passeriformes), other species of birds that have been introduced into Australia, and are competent reservoir hosts of Borrelia, include birds from the order of Galliformes: wild turkeys (53), pheasants (54-55), quails (56) and Anseriformes: Mallard ducks (57).
References: LYME TRANSMISSION: Role of Birds as Vector and Reservoir Hosts in Borrelia (Lyme),
with a focus on Ixodes Uriae (Seabird) and Ixodes Auritulus (Bird) Ticks.
Please note: Any information with regards to Lyme disease that is freely available at numerous locations on the internet has not been referenced. For specific facts/arguments, see the reference list.
1) Hubalek, Z (2004) An Annotated Checklist of Pathogenic Microorganisms Associated with Migratory Birds J Wildlife Dis; 40 (4): 639-659. http://www.jwildlifedis.org/doi/abs/10.7589/0090-3558-40.4.639?code=wdas-site
(2) Anderson JF and Magnarelli LA (1984) Avian and mammalian hosts for spirochete-infected ticks and insects in a Lyme disease focus in Connecticut. Yale J Biol Med ;57(4):627-41. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6516460
(3) Hamer SA, Hickling GJ, Sidge JL, Rosen ME, Walker ED and Tsao JI (2011) Diverse Borrelia burgdorferi strains in a bird-tick cryptic cycle. Appl Environ Microbiol; ;77(6):1999-2007. Epub 2011 Jan 21. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21257811
(4) Hasle G, BjuneGA, Midthjell L, Roed KH and Leinaas HP(2011) Transport of Ixodes ricinus infected with Borrelia species to Norway by northward-migrating passerine birds. Ticks Tick Borne Dis; ;2(1):37-43. Epub 2010 Nov 26. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21771535
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(23) Ocean Wanderers, Annotated List of the Seabirds of the World: http://www.oceanwanderers.com/Seabird.Home.html
(24) Asia-Pacific Migratory Waterbird Conservation Strategy: 2001-2005 Asia-Pacific Migratory Waterbird Conservation Committee. Wetlands International - Asia Pacific, 2001. ISBN 983 9663 30 5 http://155.187.2.69/biodiversity/migratory/publications/asia-pacific/summary.html
(25) Appendix D6. North Marine Region Protected Species. Group Report Cards: Bird http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/mbp/publications/north/pubs/profile-appendixd6.pdf
(26) Guidelines for Managing Visitation to SeabirdBreeding Islands: Prepared by WBM Oceanics Australiaand Gordon Claridge for the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority and Environment Australia-Biodiversity Group. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority 1997: ISBN 0 642 23029 3 http://www.reefhq.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/4465/seabirds1.pdf
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(29) Shorebird migration Chart. Aust. Govt.: http://www.environment.gov.au/about/publications/pubs/poster-shorebird-migration.pdf
(30) The East Asia- Australasian Flyway: http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/userfiles/file/sowb/flyways/8_East_Asia_Australasia_Factsheet.pdf
(31) Australasian Wader Studies Group (AWSG): Differing migratory strategies between five species http://www.awsg.org.au/routes.php
(32) Parks and Wildlife Service: Short-tailed Shearwater: http://www.parks.tas.gov.au/index.aspx?base=5100
(33) Birdlife International. Species, Sooty Shearwater (Puffinus griseus): http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=3933
(34) Seabirds: http://www.reefed.edu.au/home/explorer/animals/marine_vertebrates/seabirds
(35) Humair PF (2002) Birds and Borrelia. Int J Med Microbiol;291 Suppl 33:70-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12141764
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ticks across Canada, and first isolation of the Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi, from the avian tick, Ixodes auritulus. J Parasitol;91(4):780-90. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17089744
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(38) Scott JD, Lee MK, Fernando K, Durden LA, Jorgensen DR, Mak S and Morshed MG (2010) Detection of Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, including three novel genotypes in ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) collected from songbirds (Passeriformes) across Canada. J Vector Ecol;35(1):124-39. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20618658
(39) Ixodes auritulus: Fauna of Ixodid Ticks of the World: GV Kolonin 2009: http://www.kolonin.org/13_1.html#r18
(40) Ticks of Australia: http://www.lowchensaustralia.com/pests/paralysis-tick/ticks-of-australia.htm
(41) Australian Faunal Directory. Australian Biological Resources Study, Canberra
http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/online-resources/fauna/afd/taxa/Ixodes_auritulus/checklist#selected
(42)Tree of Life Web Project, Passeriformes: http://tolweb.org/Passeriformes
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