LYME TRANSMISSION: Role of Mammals as Vector and Reservoir Hosts in Borrelia (Lyme)
Including examination of H. longicornis (Scrub/bush) & H. bispinosa ticks
|
Including examination of I. uriae (seabird) & I. auritulus (bird) ticks
|
Including examination of H. longicornis
(scrub/bush) & H. bispinosa ticks |
|
Mammals as Vector & Reservoir Hosts:
In This Section: * An examination of the various mammals involved in the Borrelia cycle. Discussed with a focus on the Haemaphysalis longicornis (scrub/bush) & Haemaphysalis bispinosa ticks and their mammal hosts |
Role of Mammals as Vector and Reservoir Hosts in Borrelia (Lyme)
Mammals (and other animals) can be both vector (tick hosts) and reservoir (carry the bacteria in their blood) hosts in the spread and maintenance of Lyme disease. The following outlines a number of animal species that have been found to be reservoir hosts of Borrelia, as well as examines their role in spreading the vectors, ticks, across a country.
While the presence of Lyme disease continues to be denied in Australia due to one study conducted in 1994 and the fact that we don't have any of the first four ticks that were initially identified as vectors of Lyme disease in the Northern hemisphere, (as has been outlined in the Transmission and Maintenance section / Tick Vector Table), we do have a number of ticks present in Australia that have since been identified as tick vectors. These include Haemaphysalis longicornis (scrub/bush) and Haemaphysalis bispinosa ticks. Due to these ticks being recorded in Australia, the role of mammals (and other animals) in Lyme borreliosis is further explored through examination of these ticks and their associated animal hosts.
While the presence of Lyme disease continues to be denied in Australia due to one study conducted in 1994 and the fact that we don't have any of the first four ticks that were initially identified as vectors of Lyme disease in the Northern hemisphere, (as has been outlined in the Transmission and Maintenance section / Tick Vector Table), we do have a number of ticks present in Australia that have since been identified as tick vectors. These include Haemaphysalis longicornis (scrub/bush) and Haemaphysalis bispinosa ticks. Due to these ticks being recorded in Australia, the role of mammals (and other animals) in Lyme borreliosis is further explored through examination of these ticks and their associated animal hosts.
Examination of Haemaphysalis Ticks and Mammals involved in the Borrelia cycle in Australia
The Haemaphysalis tick species, bispinosa and longicornis have both been recorded in Australia and have been found to be involved in maintaining and transmitting Borrelia. Whilst the immature (larvae, nymph) tick may feed on birds, these tick species also have a close association with mammal hosts. Bearing in mind this association, these ticks are discussed in conjunction with the mammal hosts that have been shown to be either simply hosts of the tick or those that are also reservoir hosts of the Borrelia bacteria.
In order to further outline the role that mammals play in the maintenance and spread of Borrelia within the environment, the following section also briefly examines clinical illness in animals. This not only serves to give a practical example of which animals are reservoir hosts and can carry Borrelia (as well as develop a clinical illness), it also helps to reveal the concerns associated with the introduction and importation of numerous mammal species into Australia.
The H. bispinosa and H. longicornis ticks are very similar, and have the same host preferences. For example, immature ticks feed on birds and hares and hosts of the adult tick include various large domestic and wild mammals such as dogs, sheep, goats, deer, cattle, horses (1-2). Both tick species have been found to be vectors of Borrelia in southern China (3-6). Borrelia strains isolated from the H. longicornis tick include B. garinii, B. afzelii (5), and B. valaisiania (6). Studies also show that as well as a high infection rate of Borrelia, H. longicornis also carries co-infections such as Bartonella, Anaplasma, and Ehrlichia (7-8).
In order to further outline the role that mammals play in the maintenance and spread of Borrelia within the environment, the following section also briefly examines clinical illness in animals. This not only serves to give a practical example of which animals are reservoir hosts and can carry Borrelia (as well as develop a clinical illness), it also helps to reveal the concerns associated with the introduction and importation of numerous mammal species into Australia.
The H. bispinosa and H. longicornis ticks are very similar, and have the same host preferences. For example, immature ticks feed on birds and hares and hosts of the adult tick include various large domestic and wild mammals such as dogs, sheep, goats, deer, cattle, horses (1-2). Both tick species have been found to be vectors of Borrelia in southern China (3-6). Borrelia strains isolated from the H. longicornis tick include B. garinii, B. afzelii (5), and B. valaisiania (6). Studies also show that as well as a high infection rate of Borrelia, H. longicornis also carries co-infections such as Bartonella, Anaplasma, and Ehrlichia (7-8).
Haemaphysalis Bispinosa
The H. bispinosa tick species has been recorded in Australia (9-10). Further research reveals that the ticks recorded were found to be synonymous with H. longicornis (11), and Hoogstraal and others (12) reclassified the species of H. bispinosa from Australia and New Zealand as H. longicornis. Despite the reclassification, this species is mentioned here due to its original listing as being in Australia, its immense similarities with the H .longicornis, and that these two ticks are listed as synonymous on many occasions in the literature. It is also worthwhile noting that there have been other tick vectors of Borrelia that have been originally thought to be two separate species before it was found they were in fact the same species. These include; I. scapularis and I. dammini: When it was found that they were in fact the same species of tick, I. dammini was re-classified as I. Scapularis ; I. spinipalpis and I. neotomae: Research in 1997 found that I. neotomae and I. spinipalpis were actually one and the same species, I. neotomae was subsequently re-classified as I. spinipalpis.
The H. bispinosa tick species has been recorded in Australia (9-10). Further research reveals that the ticks recorded were found to be synonymous with H. longicornis (11), and Hoogstraal and others (12) reclassified the species of H. bispinosa from Australia and New Zealand as H. longicornis. Despite the reclassification, this species is mentioned here due to its original listing as being in Australia, its immense similarities with the H .longicornis, and that these two ticks are listed as synonymous on many occasions in the literature. It is also worthwhile noting that there have been other tick vectors of Borrelia that have been originally thought to be two separate species before it was found they were in fact the same species. These include; I. scapularis and I. dammini: When it was found that they were in fact the same species of tick, I. dammini was re-classified as I. Scapularis ; I. spinipalpis and I. neotomae: Research in 1997 found that I. neotomae and I. spinipalpis were actually one and the same species, I. neotomae was subsequently re-classified as I. spinipalpis.
Scrub Tick Haemaphysalis Longicornis and Associated Mammal Vector & Reservoir Hosts
The H. longicornis is more commonly known as the scrub or bush tick (or cattle tick in New Zealand). It was introduced into Australia on cattle from Northern Japan and was first recognised in 1901 in north eastern New South Wales. It is now established along coastal areas in Queensland, New South Wales, and through north eastern Victoria (esp Murray Valley) and Western Australia (13-14). The bush tick was first recognised at Walpole in Western Australia in 1983, though for how long it had been in the state is unknown. As there have been no reports of the tick in South Australia or the Northern Territory, its presence in Western Australia cannot be attributed to the natural spread of the tick and “The source of introduction to Western Australia has never been traced” (15). Two possible methods of introduction to consider are: Either via cattle transported to the district from states in Australia where the tick is common, or via migrating birds. In a study of New Zealand tick fauna it was noted that “Haemaphysalis spp. could be introduced …by migrating birds from Asia, a major source of members of this genus” (16). Walpole, where the bush tick was first recognised in Western Australia, is adjacent to Nornalup and Walpole Inlet Marine Parks, home to around 150 bird species including migrating shore and sea birds (17-18).
The hosts of the H. longicornis tick (19) include numerous animals that have been found to be reservoir hosts for Borrelia and have been introduced or imported into Australia from countries that are endemic for Lyme disease. These animals include; smaller reservoir hosts - mice, rats and hares : domestic animals - cats and dogs : medium to large animals - foxes, cattle, horses, sheep and deer (20) that have varying levels of reservoir competence. Importation of animals carrying Borrelia can occur as the animal may show no obvious signs of clinical illness.
To examine the very real likelihood of the bacteria underlying Lyme being in Australia, the following extends a little on clinical illness in animals, reservoir competence and the introduction/importation of the aforementioned animals into Australia.
In looking at animals brought into Australia from countries where Lyme disease is endemic, it should be noted that while the first reported cases described as Lyme disease were in the 1970’s, DNA studies of ticks from museums has revealed that the Borrelia bacteria underlying Lyme has been in the environment since the 1800’s (21-24). A study in Europe concluded, “residents of Europe have been exposed to diverse Lyme disease spirochetes at least since 1884, concurrent with the oldest record of apparent human infection” (21), and a study in America revealed, “These studies suggest that the agent of Lyme disease was present in a suitable reservoir host in the United States before the turn of the century and provide evidence against a hypothesis of recent introduction of this zoonotic agent to North America” (23).
The H. longicornis is more commonly known as the scrub or bush tick (or cattle tick in New Zealand). It was introduced into Australia on cattle from Northern Japan and was first recognised in 1901 in north eastern New South Wales. It is now established along coastal areas in Queensland, New South Wales, and through north eastern Victoria (esp Murray Valley) and Western Australia (13-14). The bush tick was first recognised at Walpole in Western Australia in 1983, though for how long it had been in the state is unknown. As there have been no reports of the tick in South Australia or the Northern Territory, its presence in Western Australia cannot be attributed to the natural spread of the tick and “The source of introduction to Western Australia has never been traced” (15). Two possible methods of introduction to consider are: Either via cattle transported to the district from states in Australia where the tick is common, or via migrating birds. In a study of New Zealand tick fauna it was noted that “Haemaphysalis spp. could be introduced …by migrating birds from Asia, a major source of members of this genus” (16). Walpole, where the bush tick was first recognised in Western Australia, is adjacent to Nornalup and Walpole Inlet Marine Parks, home to around 150 bird species including migrating shore and sea birds (17-18).
The hosts of the H. longicornis tick (19) include numerous animals that have been found to be reservoir hosts for Borrelia and have been introduced or imported into Australia from countries that are endemic for Lyme disease. These animals include; smaller reservoir hosts - mice, rats and hares : domestic animals - cats and dogs : medium to large animals - foxes, cattle, horses, sheep and deer (20) that have varying levels of reservoir competence. Importation of animals carrying Borrelia can occur as the animal may show no obvious signs of clinical illness.
To examine the very real likelihood of the bacteria underlying Lyme being in Australia, the following extends a little on clinical illness in animals, reservoir competence and the introduction/importation of the aforementioned animals into Australia.
In looking at animals brought into Australia from countries where Lyme disease is endemic, it should be noted that while the first reported cases described as Lyme disease were in the 1970’s, DNA studies of ticks from museums has revealed that the Borrelia bacteria underlying Lyme has been in the environment since the 1800’s (21-24). A study in Europe concluded, “residents of Europe have been exposed to diverse Lyme disease spirochetes at least since 1884, concurrent with the oldest record of apparent human infection” (21), and a study in America revealed, “These studies suggest that the agent of Lyme disease was present in a suitable reservoir host in the United States before the turn of the century and provide evidence against a hypothesis of recent introduction of this zoonotic agent to North America” (23).
Clinical Disease In Animals
In addition to humans, the only animals that may develop a clinical illness due to a Borrelia infection appear to be dogs, cats, horses and cattle (25). The primary symptom in all these animals is arthritic in nature, where inflammation of joints and limbs may lead to lameness
Dogs are competent reservoir hosts (26) and seem to be the most susceptible to developing a clinical illness (25, 27). As they are generally in close contact with humans, rates of Borrelia infection/exposure in dogs has also been studied in order to try and ascertain what the degree of risk of Borrelia exposure to humans may be within particular areas/environments (28-30). Apart from lameness (shifting leg lameness in particular), other symptoms in dogs may include; anorexia/weight loss, malaise, neurological dysfunction (25), severe polyarthritis (27), renal lesions (31,32), splenomegaly/ lymphadenopathy, intraocular inflammation (33) abnormal gait and convulsions (34). Cats are more prone to asymptomatic infections (33), though as well as lameness they may develop; fever, anorexia, fatigue (35-36), and kidney problems (37).
Asymptomatic infections seem to be the most common in horses and cattle (38-41), although clinical illness can develop with symptoms in both animals including lameness, uveitis and weight loss (38, 41-43). Other signs in cattle include decreased milk production and abortion (42, 44,45), with head tilt, encephalitis (46,47), aborted, reabsorbed foetuses and foal mortality also being reported in clinical disease in horses (48,49).
Contact Transmission in Animals
Borrelia spirochetes have been found in the urine of infected dogs (31, 50) horses (45, 51) and cattle (45), in both symptomatic and asymptomatic animals. Studies on mice found that the spirochetes in urine remained viable for 18-24 hours and concluded that “Urine may provide a method for contact non-tick transmission of B. burgdorferi in natural rodent populations particularly during periods of nesting and/or breeding” (52: pg 40). Evidence for direct contact transmission has been demonstrated in mice (53) and further studies are required in larger animals to ascertain the potential for the Borrelia spirochete to be transmitted simply by being in close contact with an infected animal.
Dogs are competent reservoir hosts (26) and seem to be the most susceptible to developing a clinical illness (25, 27). As they are generally in close contact with humans, rates of Borrelia infection/exposure in dogs has also been studied in order to try and ascertain what the degree of risk of Borrelia exposure to humans may be within particular areas/environments (28-30). Apart from lameness (shifting leg lameness in particular), other symptoms in dogs may include; anorexia/weight loss, malaise, neurological dysfunction (25), severe polyarthritis (27), renal lesions (31,32), splenomegaly/ lymphadenopathy, intraocular inflammation (33) abnormal gait and convulsions (34). Cats are more prone to asymptomatic infections (33), though as well as lameness they may develop; fever, anorexia, fatigue (35-36), and kidney problems (37).
Asymptomatic infections seem to be the most common in horses and cattle (38-41), although clinical illness can develop with symptoms in both animals including lameness, uveitis and weight loss (38, 41-43). Other signs in cattle include decreased milk production and abortion (42, 44,45), with head tilt, encephalitis (46,47), aborted, reabsorbed foetuses and foal mortality also being reported in clinical disease in horses (48,49).
Contact Transmission in Animals
Borrelia spirochetes have been found in the urine of infected dogs (31, 50) horses (45, 51) and cattle (45), in both symptomatic and asymptomatic animals. Studies on mice found that the spirochetes in urine remained viable for 18-24 hours and concluded that “Urine may provide a method for contact non-tick transmission of B. burgdorferi in natural rodent populations particularly during periods of nesting and/or breeding” (52: pg 40). Evidence for direct contact transmission has been demonstrated in mice (53) and further studies are required in larger animals to ascertain the potential for the Borrelia spirochete to be transmitted simply by being in close contact with an infected animal.
Importation of Animals into Australia : Dogs, Foxes, Cattle, Horses, Sheep and Deer and their involvement in the maintenance and transmission of Borrelia
Dogs are currently able to be brought into Australia from numerous countries in Europe, Asia and the United States (54). They are subjected to a 30 day quarantine, with requirements for rabies vaccination and blood tests for various pathogens (ie: Ehrlichiosis, Brucellosis, Leishmaniosis, Leptospirosis), though this does not include Borrelia infections (55). Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are competent reservoir hosts (56-57) and may also carry tick vectors into new geographical areas (58). Foxes were introduced into Australia from Europe in the 1870’s. Their range spread across southern Australia in the late 1800s and early 1900s and foxes are now widespread across the continent (59). They are considered a pest in all regions of Australia (eg: 59-60), and in NSW they are listed as responsible for the extinction of several species of native fauna including numerous species of ground-nesting birds (59). On Middle Island in Victoria (home to Little Penguin, Short-tailed Shearwater and Black Cormorant colonies), foxes and dogs that crossed to the island at low tide reduced the penguin numbers from 600 to less than a dozen in between 2000-2005 (61).
The foxes and dogs interaction with the birds has the potential to spread Borrelia through the exposure to ticks and from consumption of the birds. If ticks attach to the foxes and dogs, not only can the ticks directly pass on any pathogens they carry, the ticks are also relocated into environments that the animals roam. As with contact transmission, a vector (tick) may not need to be involved in spreading the Borrelia bacteria, with research examining relapsing fever Borrelia species revealing that infection can be passed on through the consumption of Borrelia infected brains and organs (62:cited in). Further research to determine whether this mechanism of transmission may also occur in the B.B sensu lato or B. Miyamotoi Borrelia groups is required.
Cattle and horses are “low level” reservoir competent hosts, dependent on varying strains of Borrelia (63), with reservoir competency still to be assessed with a number of different pathogenic strains. Cattle importation to Australia was suspended relatively recently due to outbreaks of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) in other countries. Until the BSE outbreaks, cattle were imported from the United Kingdom (UK) until 1988 and from other European countries until 1991, with the suspension being extended to include cattle from Japan in 2001, Canada in 2003 and the United States (US) in 2004 (64-65). Lyme disease has been reported from all of these countries since the late 1970’s, and/or early 1980’s. Horses are still able to be imported from many countries, including the US and with regards to Lyme disease they only require vet certification that “After due inquiry, for 60 days immediately before export, the horse has not resided on any premises in the United States where clinical, epidemiological, or other evidence of contagious …. equine piroplasmosis, horse pox, or Lyme disease has occurred during the previous 90 days” (66). With some animals carrying asymptomatic infections, this certification does not rule out that animals imported will be free of Borrelia bacteria.
Sheep and deer may develop antibodies to Borrelia infections (67-70), though studies regarding their role as reservoir hosts are mixed, with some studies concluding that they are competent reservoir hosts (68-72), and others finding that their role is limited to that of a host animal supplying a blood meal for the tick (73-75, 63). As with many animals, the differences found in reservoir competency with regards to sheep and deer may be due to species diversity of the animals (eg: there are around 44 recognised species of deer within 17 genera) or Borrelia species differences (eg: lizards are not a competent reservoir hosts of the B. burgdorferi ss, species, however they are for B. lusitaniae) and needs further examination (63). Currently sheep are only permitted to be imported into Australia from New Zealand, with importations from other countries ceasing in 1952 (65). Deer have been introduced into Australia from Europe since the late nineteenth and early twentieth century’s. Whilst over a dozen species of deer have been introduced, only six of these species survived the Australian environment (76). These deer (fallow, red, chital, rusa, sambar, and hog deer) have formed wild populations in Australia, with population numbers estimated to be 200 000 in 2004 (77). Commercial farming of four of these species (rusa, red, fallow, and chital ) began in 1971, and in order to increase commercial herd numbers, the importation of a fifth species, the North American elk (wapiti), from Canada began in 1985 (78-79).
Apart from varying levels of reservoir competency, the medium to large animals are regarded as maintaining the Borrelia bacteria within the environment by providing the tick with a host for a blood meal, with studies finding deer populations correlated with tick density and human incidence of Lyme disease (80-81). The presence of larger host animals may also amplify the Borrelia infection within the environment through tick co-feeding (73, 82), with one study concluding that sheep “can transmit localized infections from infected to uninfected ticks co-feeding at the same site on the sheep's body” (73: pge 591).
In addition to the larger animals discussed above, smaller mammals that are competent reservoir hosts of Borrelia in the Northern Hemisphere, that have also been introduced into Australia include; the house mouse, the black and brown rats and the European Hare. The introduction of these mammals’ and their role in the Borrelia cycle is discussed in greater detail in this overview’s complimentary report, ‘Lyme Disease: A Counter Argument to the Australian Government’s Denial’.
The foxes and dogs interaction with the birds has the potential to spread Borrelia through the exposure to ticks and from consumption of the birds. If ticks attach to the foxes and dogs, not only can the ticks directly pass on any pathogens they carry, the ticks are also relocated into environments that the animals roam. As with contact transmission, a vector (tick) may not need to be involved in spreading the Borrelia bacteria, with research examining relapsing fever Borrelia species revealing that infection can be passed on through the consumption of Borrelia infected brains and organs (62:cited in). Further research to determine whether this mechanism of transmission may also occur in the B.B sensu lato or B. Miyamotoi Borrelia groups is required.
Cattle and horses are “low level” reservoir competent hosts, dependent on varying strains of Borrelia (63), with reservoir competency still to be assessed with a number of different pathogenic strains. Cattle importation to Australia was suspended relatively recently due to outbreaks of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) in other countries. Until the BSE outbreaks, cattle were imported from the United Kingdom (UK) until 1988 and from other European countries until 1991, with the suspension being extended to include cattle from Japan in 2001, Canada in 2003 and the United States (US) in 2004 (64-65). Lyme disease has been reported from all of these countries since the late 1970’s, and/or early 1980’s. Horses are still able to be imported from many countries, including the US and with regards to Lyme disease they only require vet certification that “After due inquiry, for 60 days immediately before export, the horse has not resided on any premises in the United States where clinical, epidemiological, or other evidence of contagious …. equine piroplasmosis, horse pox, or Lyme disease has occurred during the previous 90 days” (66). With some animals carrying asymptomatic infections, this certification does not rule out that animals imported will be free of Borrelia bacteria.
Sheep and deer may develop antibodies to Borrelia infections (67-70), though studies regarding their role as reservoir hosts are mixed, with some studies concluding that they are competent reservoir hosts (68-72), and others finding that their role is limited to that of a host animal supplying a blood meal for the tick (73-75, 63). As with many animals, the differences found in reservoir competency with regards to sheep and deer may be due to species diversity of the animals (eg: there are around 44 recognised species of deer within 17 genera) or Borrelia species differences (eg: lizards are not a competent reservoir hosts of the B. burgdorferi ss, species, however they are for B. lusitaniae) and needs further examination (63). Currently sheep are only permitted to be imported into Australia from New Zealand, with importations from other countries ceasing in 1952 (65). Deer have been introduced into Australia from Europe since the late nineteenth and early twentieth century’s. Whilst over a dozen species of deer have been introduced, only six of these species survived the Australian environment (76). These deer (fallow, red, chital, rusa, sambar, and hog deer) have formed wild populations in Australia, with population numbers estimated to be 200 000 in 2004 (77). Commercial farming of four of these species (rusa, red, fallow, and chital ) began in 1971, and in order to increase commercial herd numbers, the importation of a fifth species, the North American elk (wapiti), from Canada began in 1985 (78-79).
Apart from varying levels of reservoir competency, the medium to large animals are regarded as maintaining the Borrelia bacteria within the environment by providing the tick with a host for a blood meal, with studies finding deer populations correlated with tick density and human incidence of Lyme disease (80-81). The presence of larger host animals may also amplify the Borrelia infection within the environment through tick co-feeding (73, 82), with one study concluding that sheep “can transmit localized infections from infected to uninfected ticks co-feeding at the same site on the sheep's body” (73: pge 591).
In addition to the larger animals discussed above, smaller mammals that are competent reservoir hosts of Borrelia in the Northern Hemisphere, that have also been introduced into Australia include; the house mouse, the black and brown rats and the European Hare. The introduction of these mammals’ and their role in the Borrelia cycle is discussed in greater detail in this overview’s complimentary report, ‘Lyme Disease: A Counter Argument to the Australian Government’s Denial’.
As well as the possibility that the previous and ongoing importation of animals into Australia has seen the introduction of various Borrelia species, it should also be noted that research from the 1950’s revealed Borrelia in Australian animals. A study conducted by Mackerras in 1959 reported that Borrelia was found in the blood of cattle, kangaroos, bandicoots and rodents (83). The Borrelia in cattle was identified as Borrelia theleri (agent of bovine borreliosis), transmitted by the cattle tick (R. microplus) (83), whilst the Borrelia found in rats in north-western Queensland (Richmond area) was determined to be a new species of Borrelia and named B. queenslandica (84). The vector of B. queenslandica was not ascertained (84) and the species of Borrelia in kangaroos and rodents not identified (83). Further to the 1950’s research, other reports involving animals in Australia include the findings of positive serology (Immunofluorescence antibody test - IFAT) for Borrelia burgdorferi on a cattle property in Camden NSW in 1989 (85), with another study of dogs in NSW revealing that 6 of 239 (2.5%) of the dogs tested in were seropositive for borrelia (86).
Various pathogens carried by H. longicornis ticks
The clinical picture of Lyme Borreliosis may be altered by numerous factors, one of these being that a tick typically harbours numerous pathogens. Therefore, if bitten by a tick, a person may be exposed to an array of various bacteria, viruses and parasites (See Co-infections). The numerous pathogens that the H. longicornis ticks are known vectors of are very briefly outlined below.
Similar to other ticks associated with Borrelia (eg: I. ricinus in Europe and I. scapularis in America), the H. longicornis species carries numerous pathogens. As well as its role in Borrelia, it is a known vector for: bacterial infections such as Bartonella; Rickettsial infections including human rickettsiosis (R. japonica), Anaplasma and Ehrlichia ; Protozoal infections Theileria and Babesia. Of the protozoa, H. longicornis is a vector for a number of species including: East Asian bovine Theileriosis (T. buffeli) , Theileria Equi, Bovine Babesiosis (B. ovata) and Canine Babesiosis (B. gibsoni) (20-29).
With its known vector capability with regards to some smaller Babesia species, examination of the capability of H. longicornis in Australia to carry and/or transmit B. microti and other Babesia species, would be highly appropriate. Examinations would be especially pertinent in light of the fact that a NSW male died of in April 2011 due to a Babesia microti infection that appears to have been acquired in Australia (12,13).
The Rhipicephalus microplus (Cattle Tick) is also discussed with regards to various pathogens it carries, including Borrelia and Babesia: Click Here
For more on Babesia in Australia and for Clinical Symptoms Click Here
With its known vector capability with regards to some smaller Babesia species, examination of the capability of H. longicornis in Australia to carry and/or transmit B. microti and other Babesia species, would be highly appropriate. Examinations would be especially pertinent in light of the fact that a NSW male died of in April 2011 due to a Babesia microti infection that appears to have been acquired in Australia (12,13).
The Rhipicephalus microplus (Cattle Tick) is also discussed with regards to various pathogens it carries, including Borrelia and Babesia: Click Here
For more on Babesia in Australia and for Clinical Symptoms Click Here
As well as its role as a vector in transmitting various other pathogens, examination of the H. longicornis tick as a possible vector of Lyme borreliosis in Australia is warranted for a number of reasons:
1. H. longicornis known role in Lyme disease/borreliosis in China.
2. The H. longicornis tick was one of four tick species that ‘spirochete like objects’were cultured from in Russel and others Australian study (more on this in the 'Vector Studies section of this overview’s complimentary report, ‘Lyme Disease: A Counter Argument to the Australian Government’s Denial’)
3. In cases of suspected Lyme disease in cattle at Camden NSW in 1989, in which positive IFAT serology for Borrelia burgdorferi was reported, “the herd from which these cases came was heavily infested with the Bush tick, Haemophysalis longicornis, at the times of presentation...” (84: pg 298).
1. H. longicornis known role in Lyme disease/borreliosis in China.
2. The H. longicornis tick was one of four tick species that ‘spirochete like objects’were cultured from in Russel and others Australian study (more on this in the 'Vector Studies section of this overview’s complimentary report, ‘Lyme Disease: A Counter Argument to the Australian Government’s Denial’)
3. In cases of suspected Lyme disease in cattle at Camden NSW in 1989, in which positive IFAT serology for Borrelia burgdorferi was reported, “the herd from which these cases came was heavily infested with the Bush tick, Haemophysalis longicornis, at the times of presentation...” (84: pg 298).
References: LYME TRANSMISSION: Role of Mammals as Vector and Reservoir Hosts in Borrelia (Lyme),
with a focus on Haemaphysalis longicornis (Scrub/bush) & H. bispinosa Ticks
(1) Haemaphysalis bispinosa http://www.kolonin.org/11_1.html#r15
(2) Haemaphysalis longicornis http://www.kolonin.org/11_5.html#r81
(3) Wan K, Zhang Z, and Dou G (1998) Investigation on primary vectors of Borrelia burgdorferi in China. Chin J Epidemiol 19, 263–266 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10322682
(4) Hao Q, Hou X, Geng Z and Wan K (2011) Distribution of Borrelia burgdorferi Sensu Lato in China. J Clin Microbiol; 49(2): 647-650. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21106783
(5) Chu CY, Jiang BG, Liu W, Zhao QM, Wu XM, Zhang PH, Zhan H and Cao WC (2008). Presence of pathogenic Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in ticks and rodents in Zhejiang, south-east China. J Med Microbiol;57( 8):980-5 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18628499
(6) Chu CY, Liu W, Jiang BG, Wang DM, Jiang WJ, Zhao QM, Zhang PH, Wang ZX, Tang GP, Yang H and Cao WC (2008) Novel Genospecies of Borrelia burgdorferi Sensu Lato from Rodents and Ticks in Southwestern China. J Clin Microbiol; 46(9):3130-3 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18614645
(7) Sun J, Liu Q, Lu L, Ding G, Guo J, Fu G, Zhang J, Meng F, Wu H, Song X, Ren D, Li D, Guo Y, Wang J, Li G, Liu J and Lin H (2008) Coinfection with four genera of bacteria (Borrelia, Bartonella, Anaplasma, and Ehrlichia) in Haemaphysalis longicornis and Ixodes sinensis ticks from China. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis; 8(6): 791-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18637722
(8) Meng Z, Jiang LP, Lu QY, Cheng SY, Ye JL and Zhan L (2008) Detection of co-infection with Lyme spirochetes and spotted fever group rickettsiae in a group of Haemaphysalis longicornis. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi; 29 (12): 1217–1220. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19173967
(9) Bremner KC (1959) Observations on the biology of Haemaphysalis bispinosa Neumann (Acarina: Ixodidae) with particular
reference to its mode of reproduction by parthenogenesis. Australian Journal of Zoology 7(1) 7 - 12 . http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/ZO9590007.htm
(10) Roberts FHS ( 1963) A systematic study of the Australian species of the genus Haemaphysalis Koch (Acarina: Ixodidae)
Australian Journal of Zoology 11(1) 35-80. http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/ZO9630035.htm
(11) H longicornis, Zipcode Zoo: http://zipcodezoo.com/Animals/H/Haemaphysalis_longicornis/
(12) Harry Hoogstraal H, Roberts FHS, Kohls GM and Tipton VJ (1968) Review of Haemaphysaus (Kaiseriana) Longicornis Neumann (Resurrected) of Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Fiji, Japan, Korea, and Northeastern China and USSR, and its Parthenogentic and Bisexual Populations (Ixodoidea, Ixodidae). J Parasit; 54(6): 1197-1213. http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/fiji/pdf/hoogstraal-etal1968.pdf
(13) Haemaphysalis longicornis Neumann, CSRIO ; http://www.ces.csiro.au/aicn/system/c_116.htm
(14) Ticks, Bees, Fleas, Flies, Spiders, and other Gremlins. Ticks in Australia, Lowchens ens Australia; http://www.lowchensaustralia.com/pests/bites.htm
(15) Bush ticks. Farm Note 472 July 2011 Western Australian Agriculture Authority. ISSN 0726-934X
http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/objtwr/imported_assets/content/pw/ins/fn_the_bush_tick.pdf
(16) Zoogeography of the New Zealand Tick Fauna by A.C.G Heath: Tuatara; Vol 23 (1) July 1977 Wallaceville Animal Research Centre, Research Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-Bio23Tuat01-t1-body-d4.html
(17) Walpole and Nornalup Inlets Marine Park. PDF Accessed from Department of Environment and Conservation; Parks and recreation at : http://www.dec.wa.gov.au/component/option,com_hotproperty/task,view/id,170/Itemid,1584/
(18) Shorebirds on WA’s SouthCoast. Snap-shot survey, analysis and recommendations for shorebird conservation in the western portion of the South Coast NRM region. Report prepared by Peter Taylor (consulting ornithologist) on behalf of Green Skills and Torbay Catchment Group. March 2011
http://southcoastnrm.org.au/files/1/files/Shorebirds%20of%20WAs%20South%20Coast-%20Report.pdf
(19) New ZealandBioSecure Entomology Laboratory. Haemaphysalis longicornis profile. R Cane 2010.
http://www.smsl.co.nz/site/southernmonitoring/files/NZB/Ha%20longicornis%20Profile.pdf
(20) Introduced / Pest Animals. Office of Environment and Heritage NSW Government
http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/pestsweeds/pestanimals.htm
(21) Matuschka FR, Ohlenbusch A, Eiffert H, Richter D and Spielman A (1996) Characteristics of Lyme disease spirochetes in archived European ticks. J Infect Dis;174(2):424-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8699081
(22) Hubbard MJ, Baker AS and Cann KJ (1998) Distribution of Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. spirochaete DNA in British ticks (Argasidae and Ixodidae) since the 19th Century, assessed by PCR. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 12: 89–97. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9513944
(23) Marshall WF 3rd, Telford SR 3rd, Rys PN, Rutledge BJ, Mathiesen D, Malawista SE, Spielman A and Persing DH (1994) Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi DNA in museum specimens of Peromyscus leucopus. J Infect Dis; 170(4):1027-32. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7930700
(24) Persing DH, Telford SR 3rd, Rys PN, DodgeDE, White TJ, Malawista SE and Spielman A (1990) Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi DNA in museum specimens of Ixodes dammini ticks. Science; 249(4975):1420-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2402635
(25) Skotarczak B (2002) Canine borreliosis--epidemiology and diagnostics. Ann Agric Environ Med; 9(2):137-40.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12498579
(26) Mather TN, Fish D and Coughlin RT (1994) Competence of dogs as reservoirs for Lyme disease spirochetes (Borrelia burgdorferi). J Am Vet Med Assoc; 205(2):186–188 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7928571
(27) Krupka I and Straubinger RK (2010) Lyme borreliosis in dogs and cats: background, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of infections with Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract; 40(6):1103-19. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20933139
(28) Lindenmayer M, Marshall D and Onderdonk AB (1991) Dogs as sentinels for Lyme disease in Massachusetts. Am J Public Health; 81(11): 1448–1455. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1405676/
(29) Artsob H, Barker IK, Fister R, Sephton G, Dick D, Lynch JA and Key D (1993) Serological studies on the infection of dogs in Ontario with Borrelia burgdorferi, the etiological agent of Lyme disease. Can Vet J; 34(9): 543–548. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1686584/
(30) Hansen K and Dietz HH (1989) Serosurvey for antibodies to Borrelia burgdofferi in Danish dogs. Acta Pathol Microbiol Immunol Scand; 97(3):281-285. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2713138
(31) Grauer GF, Burgess FC, Cooley AJ and Hagee JH (1998) Renal lesions associated with Borrelia burgdorferi infection in
a dog. J Am Vet Med Assoc; 193 (2) 237-239. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3403355
(32) Dambach DM, Smith CA, Lewis RM and Van Winkle TJ (1997) Morphologic, immunohistochemical, and ultrastructural characterization of a distinctive renal lesion in dogs putatively associated with Borrelia burgdorferi infection: 49 cases (1987-1992). Vet Pathol; 34(2):85-96. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9066075
(33) Shaw SE, Binns SH, Birtles RJ, Day MJ, Smithson R and Kenny MJ (2005) Molecular evidence of tick-transmitted infections in dogs and cats in the United Kingdom. Vet Rec;157(21):645-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16299364
(34) Azuma Y, Isogai E, Isogai H and Kawamura K (1994) Canine Lyme disease: clinical and serological evaluations in 21 dogs in Japan. Vet Rec; 134(15):369-72. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8009799
(35) Magnarelli LA, Anderson JF, Levine HR and Levy SA (1990) Tick parasitism and antibodies to Borrelia burgdorferi in cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc; 197(1):63-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2196252
(36) Magnarelli LA, Bushmich SL, IJdo JW and Fikrig E (2005) Seroprevalence of antibodies against Borrelia burgdorferi and
Anaplasma phagocytophilum in cats. Am J Vet Res; 66(11):1895-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16334946
(37) Lyme Disease in Cats; Pet MD: http://www.petmd.com/cat/conditions/infectious-parasitic/c_ct_lyme_disease
(38) Stefancikova A, Adaszek L, Pet’ko B, Winjarczyk S and Dudinak V (2008) Serological evidence of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in horses and cattle from Polandand diagnostic problems of Lyme borreliosis. Ann Agric Environ Med; 15(1):37-43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18581977
(39) Takahashi K, Isogai E, Isogai H, Takagi T, Sasaki K, Fujii N and Kimura K (1993) Serological survey for Borrelia burgdorferi infection in cattle in southern Hokkaido. J Vet Med Sci; 55(6):921-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8117816
(40) Carter SD, May C, Barnes A and Bennett D (1994) Borrelia burgdorferi infection in UK horses. Equine Vet J; 26(3):187-90. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8542836
(41) Magnarelli LA, Anderson JF, Shaw E, Post JE and Palka FC (1998) Borreliosis in equids in northeastern United States. Am J Vet Res; 49(3):359-62. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3282461
(42) Parker JL and White KK (1992) Lyme borreliosis in cattle and horses: a review of the literature. Cornell Vet; 82(3):253-74. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1643876
(43) Isogai H, Isogai E, Masuzawa T, Yanagihara Y, Matsubara M, Shimanuki, M, Seta T, Fukai K, Kurosawa N, Enokidani M, Nakamura T, Tajima M, Takahashi K and Fujíí N (1992) Seroepidemiological survey for antibody to Borrelia burgdorferi in cows. Microbiol Immunol; 36(10):1029-39. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1479959
(44) Lischer CJ, Leutenegger CM, Braun U and Lutz H (2000) Diagnosis of Lyme disease in two cows by the detection of Borrelia burgdorferi DNA. Vet Rec; 146(17):497-9. http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/content/146/17/497.abstract
(45) Burgess EC (1988) Borrelia burgdorferi infection in Wisconsinhorses and cows. Ann N Y Acad Sci; ;539:235-43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3190095
(46) James FM, Engiles JB and Beech J (2010) Meningitis, cranial neuritis, and radiculoneuritis associated with Borrelia burgdorferi infection in a horse. J Am Vet Med Assoc; 237(10):1180-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21073390
(47) Burgess EC, Mattison M: 1987, Encephalitis associated with Borrelia burgdorferi infection in a horse. J Am Vet Med Assoc 191:1457–1458. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3692996
(48) Sorensen K, Neely DP, Grappell PM and Read W (1990) Lyme disease antibodies in Thoroughbred mares, correlation to
early pregnancy failure. Equine Vet J; 10(3):166–168. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S073708060680153X
(49) Burgess EC, Gendron-Fitzpatrick A and Mattison M. Foal mortality associated with natural infection of pregnant mares
with Borrelia burgdorferi. In: Equine Infectious Disease: Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference, ed. Powell DG, 5th ed., pp. 217–220. University Press of Kentucky,Lexington, KY, 1988. Full article not available on AGRIS Website : Though a majority of article can be viewed HERE
(50) Cerri D, Farina R, Andreani E, Nuvoloni R, Pedrini A and Cardini G (1994) Experimental infection of dogs with Borrelia
burgdorferi. Res Vet Sci; 57(2):256-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7817018
(51) Manion TB, Khan, MI, Dinger J and Bushmich SL (1998) Viable Borrelia burgdorferi in the urine of two clinically normal horses. J Vet Diagn Invest 10 (2):196–199 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9576355
(52) Bosler EM and Schultze TL (1986) The prevalence and significance of Borrelia burgdorferi in the urine of feral reservoir hosts. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg A; 263(1-2):40–44. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3577491
(53) Burgess EC, Amundson TE, Davis JP, Kaslow RA and Edelman R (1986) Experimental inoculation of Peromyscus spp. with Borrelia burgdorferi: evidence of contact transmission. Am J Trop Med Hyg; 35(2):355-359. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3513648
(54) Bringing Cats and Dogs (and other pets) to Australia. Australian Quarantine and Inspection Services. http://www.daff.gov.au/aqis/cat-dogs
(55) Bringing Cats and Dogs (and other pets) to Australia; Information Package 4: Quarantine Period Varies in Australia. Australian Quarantine and Inspection Services. http://www.daff.gov.au/aqis/cat-dogs/countries/cat4/info-pack-4#cats
(56) Schoffel I, Schein E, Wittstadt U and Hentsche J (1991) Parasite fauna of red foxes in Berlin (West). Berl Munch Tierarztl Wochenschr;104(5):153-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1872791
(57) Gern L (2008) Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, the agent of lyme borreliosis: life in the wilds. Parasite; 15(3):244-7.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18814688 Full copy: http://parasite-journal.org/dwld/Parasite08-3_244-247_Gern.pdf
(58) Kazmierczak JJ and Burgess EC (1989) Antibodies to Borrelia sp. in wild foxes and coyotes from Wisconsin and Minnesota. J Wildl Dis; 25(1):108-11. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2644451
(59) Foxes. NSW Office of Environment and Heritage http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/pestsweeds/Foxes.htm
(60) Fox. QueenslandGovernment. Primary Industries and Fisheries http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/4790_8282.htm
(61) Warrnambool Coastcare Landcare Group: http://www.wclg.com.au/middle-island/
(62) Barbour AG and Hayes SF (1986) Biology of Borrelia species. Microbiol Rev ; 50(4): 381–400 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC373079/
(63) Kurtenbach K, Sewell HS, Ogden NH, Randolph SE and Nuttall PA (1998) Serum complement sensitivity as a key factor in Lyme disease ecology. Infect Immun; 66(3):1248-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9488421
(64) Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy. Australian Government, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry : http://www.daff.gov.au/animal-plant-health/pests-diseases-weeds/animal/bse#importcattle
(65) Animal Health Australia, Imported Animal Quarantine and Surveillance:
http://www.animalhealthaustralia.com.au/programs/biosecurity/tse-freedom-assurance-program/imported-animal-quarantine-and-surveillance/
(66) Importing live horses. Australian Quarantine and Inspection Services. http://www.daff.gov.au/aqis/import/live-animals/importing-live-horses
(67) Fridriksdóttir V, Nesse LL, and Gudding R (1992) Seroepidemiological Studies of Borrelia burgdorferi Infection in Sheep in Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992 May; 30(5): 1271–1277. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC265263/
(68) Hoymark A, Asbrink E, Schwan O, Hederstedt B and Christensson D (1986) Antibodies to Borrelia spirochetes in sera from Swedish cattle and sheep. Acta Vet Scand; 27(4):479-85. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3604822
(69) Isogai E, Isogai H, Masuzawa T, Yanagihara Y, Sato N, Hayashi S, Maki T and Mori M (1991) Serological survey for Lyme disease in sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Microbiol Immunol; 35(9):695-703. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1808467
(70) Bosler EM, Ormiston BG, Coleman JL, Hanrahan JP and Benach JL (1984) Prevalence of the Lyme disease spirochete in populations of white-tailed deer and white-footed mice. Yale J Biol Med;57(4):651-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6516461
(71) Kimura, K, Isogai E, Isogai H, Kamewaka Y, Nishikawa T, Ishii N and Fujii N (1995) Detection of Lyme Disease Spirochetes in the Skin of Naturally Infected Wild Sika Deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) by PCR. App Environ Microbiol; 61(4): 1641–1642. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC167423/pdf/611641.pdf
(72) Oliver JH Jr, Stallknecht D, Chandler FW, James AM, McGuire BS and Howerth E (1992) Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi in laboratory-reared Ixodes dammini (Acari: Ixodidae) fed on experimentally inoculated white-tailed deer. J Med Entomol; 29(6):980-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1460639
(73) Ogden NH, Nuttall PA and Randolph SE (1997) Natural Lyme disease cycles maintained via sheep by co-feeding ticks. Parasitology;115 ( Pt 6):591-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9488870
(74) Jaenson TG and Talleklint L (1992) Incompetence of roe deer as reservoirs of the Lyme borreliosis spirochete. J Med Entomol; 29(5):813-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1404260
(75) Telford SR 3rd, Mather TN, Moore SI, Wilson ML and Spielman A (1988) Incompetence of deer as reservoirs of the Lyme disease spirochete. Am J Trop Med Hyg; 39(1):105-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3400797
(76) Deer in Queensland. Pest Status Review Series – Land Protection by Peter Jesser. 2005 The State of Queensland (Department of Natural Resources and Mines) ISBN 1 921062 31 2 http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Deer-PSA.pdf
(77) Moriarty, A (2004) The liberation, distribution, abundance and management of wild deer in Australia. Wildlife Research 31(3) 291 – 299. http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/WR02100.htm
(78) The Deer Farming Handbook. Species in Australia: http://www.diaa.org/DFH/DFH05-Species.pdf
(79) Deer Farming in Australia, by Asst Editor Dave T, of Informed Farmers, 2011: http://informedfarmers.com/deer-farming-in-australia/
(80) Jensen PM and Frandsen F (2000) Temporal risk assessment for Lyme borreliosis in Denmark. Scand J Infect Dis; 32(5):539-44. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11055661
(81) Jensen PM, Hansen H and Frandsen F (2000) Spatial risk assessment for Lyme borreliosis in Denmark. Scan J Infect Dis; 32(5):545-50. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11055662
(82) Gern L & Rais O (1996) Efficient transmission of Borrelia burgdorferi between cofeeding Ixodes ricinus ticks (Acari: Ixodidae). J Med Entomol; 33(1):189-92. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8906929
(83) Mackerras MJ (1959) The haematozoa of Australian mammals. Australian Journal of Zoology, 7(2)105 – 135. http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/ZO9590105.htm
(84) Carly JG and Pope JH (1962) A new species of Borrelia (B. queenslandica) from Rattus villosissimus in Queensland. Aust J Exp Biol Med Sci; 40:255-61. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13876596
(85) Rothwell JT, Christie BM, Williams C and Walker KH (1989) Suspected Lyme disease in a cow. Aust Vet J; 66(9):296-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2684126
(86) Russell, R (1995) Lyme Disease in Australia?-Still To Be Proven! Emerg Infect Dis 1 (1) Jan-March Dispatches. http://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/EID/vol1no1/ascii/russell.vol1no1.txt
(2) Haemaphysalis longicornis http://www.kolonin.org/11_5.html#r81
(3) Wan K, Zhang Z, and Dou G (1998) Investigation on primary vectors of Borrelia burgdorferi in China. Chin J Epidemiol 19, 263–266 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10322682
(4) Hao Q, Hou X, Geng Z and Wan K (2011) Distribution of Borrelia burgdorferi Sensu Lato in China. J Clin Microbiol; 49(2): 647-650. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21106783
(5) Chu CY, Jiang BG, Liu W, Zhao QM, Wu XM, Zhang PH, Zhan H and Cao WC (2008). Presence of pathogenic Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in ticks and rodents in Zhejiang, south-east China. J Med Microbiol;57( 8):980-5 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18628499
(6) Chu CY, Liu W, Jiang BG, Wang DM, Jiang WJ, Zhao QM, Zhang PH, Wang ZX, Tang GP, Yang H and Cao WC (2008) Novel Genospecies of Borrelia burgdorferi Sensu Lato from Rodents and Ticks in Southwestern China. J Clin Microbiol; 46(9):3130-3 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18614645
(7) Sun J, Liu Q, Lu L, Ding G, Guo J, Fu G, Zhang J, Meng F, Wu H, Song X, Ren D, Li D, Guo Y, Wang J, Li G, Liu J and Lin H (2008) Coinfection with four genera of bacteria (Borrelia, Bartonella, Anaplasma, and Ehrlichia) in Haemaphysalis longicornis and Ixodes sinensis ticks from China. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis; 8(6): 791-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18637722
(8) Meng Z, Jiang LP, Lu QY, Cheng SY, Ye JL and Zhan L (2008) Detection of co-infection with Lyme spirochetes and spotted fever group rickettsiae in a group of Haemaphysalis longicornis. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi; 29 (12): 1217–1220. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19173967
(9) Bremner KC (1959) Observations on the biology of Haemaphysalis bispinosa Neumann (Acarina: Ixodidae) with particular
reference to its mode of reproduction by parthenogenesis. Australian Journal of Zoology 7(1) 7 - 12 . http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/ZO9590007.htm
(10) Roberts FHS ( 1963) A systematic study of the Australian species of the genus Haemaphysalis Koch (Acarina: Ixodidae)
Australian Journal of Zoology 11(1) 35-80. http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/ZO9630035.htm
(11) H longicornis, Zipcode Zoo: http://zipcodezoo.com/Animals/H/Haemaphysalis_longicornis/
(12) Harry Hoogstraal H, Roberts FHS, Kohls GM and Tipton VJ (1968) Review of Haemaphysaus (Kaiseriana) Longicornis Neumann (Resurrected) of Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Fiji, Japan, Korea, and Northeastern China and USSR, and its Parthenogentic and Bisexual Populations (Ixodoidea, Ixodidae). J Parasit; 54(6): 1197-1213. http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/fiji/pdf/hoogstraal-etal1968.pdf
(13) Haemaphysalis longicornis Neumann, CSRIO ; http://www.ces.csiro.au/aicn/system/c_116.htm
(14) Ticks, Bees, Fleas, Flies, Spiders, and other Gremlins. Ticks in Australia, Lowchens ens Australia; http://www.lowchensaustralia.com/pests/bites.htm
(15) Bush ticks. Farm Note 472 July 2011 Western Australian Agriculture Authority. ISSN 0726-934X
http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/objtwr/imported_assets/content/pw/ins/fn_the_bush_tick.pdf
(16) Zoogeography of the New Zealand Tick Fauna by A.C.G Heath: Tuatara; Vol 23 (1) July 1977 Wallaceville Animal Research Centre, Research Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-Bio23Tuat01-t1-body-d4.html
(17) Walpole and Nornalup Inlets Marine Park. PDF Accessed from Department of Environment and Conservation; Parks and recreation at : http://www.dec.wa.gov.au/component/option,com_hotproperty/task,view/id,170/Itemid,1584/
(18) Shorebirds on WA’s SouthCoast. Snap-shot survey, analysis and recommendations for shorebird conservation in the western portion of the South Coast NRM region. Report prepared by Peter Taylor (consulting ornithologist) on behalf of Green Skills and Torbay Catchment Group. March 2011
http://southcoastnrm.org.au/files/1/files/Shorebirds%20of%20WAs%20South%20Coast-%20Report.pdf
(19) New ZealandBioSecure Entomology Laboratory. Haemaphysalis longicornis profile. R Cane 2010.
http://www.smsl.co.nz/site/southernmonitoring/files/NZB/Ha%20longicornis%20Profile.pdf
(20) Introduced / Pest Animals. Office of Environment and Heritage NSW Government
http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/pestsweeds/pestanimals.htm
(21) Matuschka FR, Ohlenbusch A, Eiffert H, Richter D and Spielman A (1996) Characteristics of Lyme disease spirochetes in archived European ticks. J Infect Dis;174(2):424-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8699081
(22) Hubbard MJ, Baker AS and Cann KJ (1998) Distribution of Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. spirochaete DNA in British ticks (Argasidae and Ixodidae) since the 19th Century, assessed by PCR. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 12: 89–97. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9513944
(23) Marshall WF 3rd, Telford SR 3rd, Rys PN, Rutledge BJ, Mathiesen D, Malawista SE, Spielman A and Persing DH (1994) Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi DNA in museum specimens of Peromyscus leucopus. J Infect Dis; 170(4):1027-32. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7930700
(24) Persing DH, Telford SR 3rd, Rys PN, DodgeDE, White TJ, Malawista SE and Spielman A (1990) Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi DNA in museum specimens of Ixodes dammini ticks. Science; 249(4975):1420-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2402635
(25) Skotarczak B (2002) Canine borreliosis--epidemiology and diagnostics. Ann Agric Environ Med; 9(2):137-40.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12498579
(26) Mather TN, Fish D and Coughlin RT (1994) Competence of dogs as reservoirs for Lyme disease spirochetes (Borrelia burgdorferi). J Am Vet Med Assoc; 205(2):186–188 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7928571
(27) Krupka I and Straubinger RK (2010) Lyme borreliosis in dogs and cats: background, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of infections with Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract; 40(6):1103-19. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20933139
(28) Lindenmayer M, Marshall D and Onderdonk AB (1991) Dogs as sentinels for Lyme disease in Massachusetts. Am J Public Health; 81(11): 1448–1455. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1405676/
(29) Artsob H, Barker IK, Fister R, Sephton G, Dick D, Lynch JA and Key D (1993) Serological studies on the infection of dogs in Ontario with Borrelia burgdorferi, the etiological agent of Lyme disease. Can Vet J; 34(9): 543–548. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1686584/
(30) Hansen K and Dietz HH (1989) Serosurvey for antibodies to Borrelia burgdofferi in Danish dogs. Acta Pathol Microbiol Immunol Scand; 97(3):281-285. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2713138
(31) Grauer GF, Burgess FC, Cooley AJ and Hagee JH (1998) Renal lesions associated with Borrelia burgdorferi infection in
a dog. J Am Vet Med Assoc; 193 (2) 237-239. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3403355
(32) Dambach DM, Smith CA, Lewis RM and Van Winkle TJ (1997) Morphologic, immunohistochemical, and ultrastructural characterization of a distinctive renal lesion in dogs putatively associated with Borrelia burgdorferi infection: 49 cases (1987-1992). Vet Pathol; 34(2):85-96. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9066075
(33) Shaw SE, Binns SH, Birtles RJ, Day MJ, Smithson R and Kenny MJ (2005) Molecular evidence of tick-transmitted infections in dogs and cats in the United Kingdom. Vet Rec;157(21):645-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16299364
(34) Azuma Y, Isogai E, Isogai H and Kawamura K (1994) Canine Lyme disease: clinical and serological evaluations in 21 dogs in Japan. Vet Rec; 134(15):369-72. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8009799
(35) Magnarelli LA, Anderson JF, Levine HR and Levy SA (1990) Tick parasitism and antibodies to Borrelia burgdorferi in cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc; 197(1):63-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2196252
(36) Magnarelli LA, Bushmich SL, IJdo JW and Fikrig E (2005) Seroprevalence of antibodies against Borrelia burgdorferi and
Anaplasma phagocytophilum in cats. Am J Vet Res; 66(11):1895-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16334946
(37) Lyme Disease in Cats; Pet MD: http://www.petmd.com/cat/conditions/infectious-parasitic/c_ct_lyme_disease
(38) Stefancikova A, Adaszek L, Pet’ko B, Winjarczyk S and Dudinak V (2008) Serological evidence of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in horses and cattle from Polandand diagnostic problems of Lyme borreliosis. Ann Agric Environ Med; 15(1):37-43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18581977
(39) Takahashi K, Isogai E, Isogai H, Takagi T, Sasaki K, Fujii N and Kimura K (1993) Serological survey for Borrelia burgdorferi infection in cattle in southern Hokkaido. J Vet Med Sci; 55(6):921-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8117816
(40) Carter SD, May C, Barnes A and Bennett D (1994) Borrelia burgdorferi infection in UK horses. Equine Vet J; 26(3):187-90. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8542836
(41) Magnarelli LA, Anderson JF, Shaw E, Post JE and Palka FC (1998) Borreliosis in equids in northeastern United States. Am J Vet Res; 49(3):359-62. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3282461
(42) Parker JL and White KK (1992) Lyme borreliosis in cattle and horses: a review of the literature. Cornell Vet; 82(3):253-74. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1643876
(43) Isogai H, Isogai E, Masuzawa T, Yanagihara Y, Matsubara M, Shimanuki, M, Seta T, Fukai K, Kurosawa N, Enokidani M, Nakamura T, Tajima M, Takahashi K and Fujíí N (1992) Seroepidemiological survey for antibody to Borrelia burgdorferi in cows. Microbiol Immunol; 36(10):1029-39. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1479959
(44) Lischer CJ, Leutenegger CM, Braun U and Lutz H (2000) Diagnosis of Lyme disease in two cows by the detection of Borrelia burgdorferi DNA. Vet Rec; 146(17):497-9. http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/content/146/17/497.abstract
(45) Burgess EC (1988) Borrelia burgdorferi infection in Wisconsinhorses and cows. Ann N Y Acad Sci; ;539:235-43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3190095
(46) James FM, Engiles JB and Beech J (2010) Meningitis, cranial neuritis, and radiculoneuritis associated with Borrelia burgdorferi infection in a horse. J Am Vet Med Assoc; 237(10):1180-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21073390
(47) Burgess EC, Mattison M: 1987, Encephalitis associated with Borrelia burgdorferi infection in a horse. J Am Vet Med Assoc 191:1457–1458. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3692996
(48) Sorensen K, Neely DP, Grappell PM and Read W (1990) Lyme disease antibodies in Thoroughbred mares, correlation to
early pregnancy failure. Equine Vet J; 10(3):166–168. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S073708060680153X
(49) Burgess EC, Gendron-Fitzpatrick A and Mattison M. Foal mortality associated with natural infection of pregnant mares
with Borrelia burgdorferi. In: Equine Infectious Disease: Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference, ed. Powell DG, 5th ed., pp. 217–220. University Press of Kentucky,Lexington, KY, 1988. Full article not available on AGRIS Website : Though a majority of article can be viewed HERE
(50) Cerri D, Farina R, Andreani E, Nuvoloni R, Pedrini A and Cardini G (1994) Experimental infection of dogs with Borrelia
burgdorferi. Res Vet Sci; 57(2):256-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7817018
(51) Manion TB, Khan, MI, Dinger J and Bushmich SL (1998) Viable Borrelia burgdorferi in the urine of two clinically normal horses. J Vet Diagn Invest 10 (2):196–199 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9576355
(52) Bosler EM and Schultze TL (1986) The prevalence and significance of Borrelia burgdorferi in the urine of feral reservoir hosts. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg A; 263(1-2):40–44. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3577491
(53) Burgess EC, Amundson TE, Davis JP, Kaslow RA and Edelman R (1986) Experimental inoculation of Peromyscus spp. with Borrelia burgdorferi: evidence of contact transmission. Am J Trop Med Hyg; 35(2):355-359. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3513648
(54) Bringing Cats and Dogs (and other pets) to Australia. Australian Quarantine and Inspection Services. http://www.daff.gov.au/aqis/cat-dogs
(55) Bringing Cats and Dogs (and other pets) to Australia; Information Package 4: Quarantine Period Varies in Australia. Australian Quarantine and Inspection Services. http://www.daff.gov.au/aqis/cat-dogs/countries/cat4/info-pack-4#cats
(56) Schoffel I, Schein E, Wittstadt U and Hentsche J (1991) Parasite fauna of red foxes in Berlin (West). Berl Munch Tierarztl Wochenschr;104(5):153-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1872791
(57) Gern L (2008) Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, the agent of lyme borreliosis: life in the wilds. Parasite; 15(3):244-7.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18814688 Full copy: http://parasite-journal.org/dwld/Parasite08-3_244-247_Gern.pdf
(58) Kazmierczak JJ and Burgess EC (1989) Antibodies to Borrelia sp. in wild foxes and coyotes from Wisconsin and Minnesota. J Wildl Dis; 25(1):108-11. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2644451
(59) Foxes. NSW Office of Environment and Heritage http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/pestsweeds/Foxes.htm
(60) Fox. QueenslandGovernment. Primary Industries and Fisheries http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/4790_8282.htm
(61) Warrnambool Coastcare Landcare Group: http://www.wclg.com.au/middle-island/
(62) Barbour AG and Hayes SF (1986) Biology of Borrelia species. Microbiol Rev ; 50(4): 381–400 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC373079/
(63) Kurtenbach K, Sewell HS, Ogden NH, Randolph SE and Nuttall PA (1998) Serum complement sensitivity as a key factor in Lyme disease ecology. Infect Immun; 66(3):1248-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9488421
(64) Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy. Australian Government, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry : http://www.daff.gov.au/animal-plant-health/pests-diseases-weeds/animal/bse#importcattle
(65) Animal Health Australia, Imported Animal Quarantine and Surveillance:
http://www.animalhealthaustralia.com.au/programs/biosecurity/tse-freedom-assurance-program/imported-animal-quarantine-and-surveillance/
(66) Importing live horses. Australian Quarantine and Inspection Services. http://www.daff.gov.au/aqis/import/live-animals/importing-live-horses
(67) Fridriksdóttir V, Nesse LL, and Gudding R (1992) Seroepidemiological Studies of Borrelia burgdorferi Infection in Sheep in Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992 May; 30(5): 1271–1277. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC265263/
(68) Hoymark A, Asbrink E, Schwan O, Hederstedt B and Christensson D (1986) Antibodies to Borrelia spirochetes in sera from Swedish cattle and sheep. Acta Vet Scand; 27(4):479-85. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3604822
(69) Isogai E, Isogai H, Masuzawa T, Yanagihara Y, Sato N, Hayashi S, Maki T and Mori M (1991) Serological survey for Lyme disease in sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Microbiol Immunol; 35(9):695-703. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1808467
(70) Bosler EM, Ormiston BG, Coleman JL, Hanrahan JP and Benach JL (1984) Prevalence of the Lyme disease spirochete in populations of white-tailed deer and white-footed mice. Yale J Biol Med;57(4):651-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6516461
(71) Kimura, K, Isogai E, Isogai H, Kamewaka Y, Nishikawa T, Ishii N and Fujii N (1995) Detection of Lyme Disease Spirochetes in the Skin of Naturally Infected Wild Sika Deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) by PCR. App Environ Microbiol; 61(4): 1641–1642. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC167423/pdf/611641.pdf
(72) Oliver JH Jr, Stallknecht D, Chandler FW, James AM, McGuire BS and Howerth E (1992) Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi in laboratory-reared Ixodes dammini (Acari: Ixodidae) fed on experimentally inoculated white-tailed deer. J Med Entomol; 29(6):980-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1460639
(73) Ogden NH, Nuttall PA and Randolph SE (1997) Natural Lyme disease cycles maintained via sheep by co-feeding ticks. Parasitology;115 ( Pt 6):591-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9488870
(74) Jaenson TG and Talleklint L (1992) Incompetence of roe deer as reservoirs of the Lyme borreliosis spirochete. J Med Entomol; 29(5):813-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1404260
(75) Telford SR 3rd, Mather TN, Moore SI, Wilson ML and Spielman A (1988) Incompetence of deer as reservoirs of the Lyme disease spirochete. Am J Trop Med Hyg; 39(1):105-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3400797
(76) Deer in Queensland. Pest Status Review Series – Land Protection by Peter Jesser. 2005 The State of Queensland (Department of Natural Resources and Mines) ISBN 1 921062 31 2 http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Deer-PSA.pdf
(77) Moriarty, A (2004) The liberation, distribution, abundance and management of wild deer in Australia. Wildlife Research 31(3) 291 – 299. http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/WR02100.htm
(78) The Deer Farming Handbook. Species in Australia: http://www.diaa.org/DFH/DFH05-Species.pdf
(79) Deer Farming in Australia, by Asst Editor Dave T, of Informed Farmers, 2011: http://informedfarmers.com/deer-farming-in-australia/
(80) Jensen PM and Frandsen F (2000) Temporal risk assessment for Lyme borreliosis in Denmark. Scand J Infect Dis; 32(5):539-44. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11055661
(81) Jensen PM, Hansen H and Frandsen F (2000) Spatial risk assessment for Lyme borreliosis in Denmark. Scan J Infect Dis; 32(5):545-50. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11055662
(82) Gern L & Rais O (1996) Efficient transmission of Borrelia burgdorferi between cofeeding Ixodes ricinus ticks (Acari: Ixodidae). J Med Entomol; 33(1):189-92. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8906929
(83) Mackerras MJ (1959) The haematozoa of Australian mammals. Australian Journal of Zoology, 7(2)105 – 135. http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/ZO9590105.htm
(84) Carly JG and Pope JH (1962) A new species of Borrelia (B. queenslandica) from Rattus villosissimus in Queensland. Aust J Exp Biol Med Sci; 40:255-61. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13876596
(85) Rothwell JT, Christie BM, Williams C and Walker KH (1989) Suspected Lyme disease in a cow. Aust Vet J; 66(9):296-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2684126
(86) Russell, R (1995) Lyme Disease in Australia?-Still To Be Proven! Emerg Infect Dis 1 (1) Jan-March Dispatches. http://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/EID/vol1no1/ascii/russell.vol1no1.txt
Multiple pathogens carried by Ticks
(1) Thompson C, Spielman A, Krause PJ (2001) Coinfecting deer-associated zoonoses: Lyme disease, babesiosis, and ehrlichiosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2001 Sep 1;33(5):676-85. Epub 2001 Aug 6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11486290
Various pathogens carried by H. longicornis
(20) Chu CY, Jiang BG, Liu W, Zhao QM, Wu XM, Zhang PH, Zhan H and Cao WC (2008). Presence of pathogenic Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in ticks and rodents in Zhejiang, south-east China. J Med Microbiol;57( 8):980-5 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18628499
(21) Chu CY, Liu W, Jiang BG, Wang DM, Jiang WJ, Zhao QM, Zhang PH, Wang ZX, Tang GP, Yang H and Cao WC (2008) Novel Genospecies of Borrelia burgdorferi Sensu Lato from Rodents and Ticks in Southwestern China. J Clin Microbiol; 46(9):3130-3 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18614645
(22) Sun J, Liu Q, Lu L, Ding G, Guo J, Fu G, Zhang J, Meng F, Wu H, Song X, Ren D, Li D, Guo Y, Wang J, Li G, Liu J and Lin H (2008) Coinfection with four genera of bacteria (Borrelia, Bartonella, Anaplasma, and Ehrlichia) in Haemaphysalis longicornis and Ixodes sinensis ticks from China. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis; 8(6): 791-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18637722
(23) Meng Z, Jiang LP, Lu QY, Cheng SY, Ye JL and Zhan L (2008) Detection of co-infection with Lyme spirochetes and spotted fever group rickettsiae in a group of Haemaphysalis longicornis. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi; 29 (12): 1217–1220. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19173967
(24) Jongejan F and Uilenberg G (2004) The global importance of ticks. Parasitology ; 129, S3–S14. http://www.cbpv.com.br/artigos/CBPV_artigo_017.pdf
(25) Lee MJ and Chae JS (2010) Molecular Detection of Ehrlichia chaffeensis and Anaplasma bovis in the Salivary Glands from Haemaphysalis longicornis Ticks. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases; 10(4): 411-413. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19874189
(26) Bovine anaemia caused by Theileria orientalis group. NSW Govt. Primary Industries:
http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/animal/info-vets/theileria Full fact sheet/pdf: http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/404679/Bovine-anaemia-caused-by-Theileria-orientalis-group-Primefact-1110.pdf
(27) Theileriosis in Australia – an emerging disease: Accessed July 2012
http://www.petalia.com.au/Templates/StoryTemplate_Process.cfm?specie=Beef&story_no=2161
(28) Ikadai H, Sasaki M, Ishida H, Matsuu A, Igarashi I, Fujisaki K and Ovamada T (2007). Molecular evidence of Babesia equi transmission in Haemaphysalis longicornis. Am J Trop Med Hyg; 76(4):694-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17426172
(29) Liu J, Yin H, Liu G, Guan G, Ma M, Liu A, Liu Z, Li Y, Ren Q, Dang Z, Gao J, Bai Q, Zhao H and Luo J (2008) Discrimination of Babesia major and Babesia ovata based on ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region sequences of rRNA gene. Parasitol Res; ;102(4):709-13. Epub 2007 Dec 7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18066598
Babesia
(12) Senanayake SN, Paparini A, Latimer M, Andriolo K, Dasilva AJ, Wilson H, Xayavong MV, Collignon PJ, Jeans P and Irwin PJ (2012). First report of human babesiosis in Australia. Med J Aust 196(5):350-352.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22432676
https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2012/196/5/first-report-human-babesiosis-australia
(13) First case of babesiosis in Australia baffles scientists. May 2012. Science Network Western Australia: Accessed August 2012. http://www.sciencewa.net.au/topics/health-a-medicine/item/1451-first-case-of-babesiosis-in-australia-baffles-scientists
(1) Thompson C, Spielman A, Krause PJ (2001) Coinfecting deer-associated zoonoses: Lyme disease, babesiosis, and ehrlichiosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2001 Sep 1;33(5):676-85. Epub 2001 Aug 6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11486290
Various pathogens carried by H. longicornis
(20) Chu CY, Jiang BG, Liu W, Zhao QM, Wu XM, Zhang PH, Zhan H and Cao WC (2008). Presence of pathogenic Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in ticks and rodents in Zhejiang, south-east China. J Med Microbiol;57( 8):980-5 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18628499
(21) Chu CY, Liu W, Jiang BG, Wang DM, Jiang WJ, Zhao QM, Zhang PH, Wang ZX, Tang GP, Yang H and Cao WC (2008) Novel Genospecies of Borrelia burgdorferi Sensu Lato from Rodents and Ticks in Southwestern China. J Clin Microbiol; 46(9):3130-3 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18614645
(22) Sun J, Liu Q, Lu L, Ding G, Guo J, Fu G, Zhang J, Meng F, Wu H, Song X, Ren D, Li D, Guo Y, Wang J, Li G, Liu J and Lin H (2008) Coinfection with four genera of bacteria (Borrelia, Bartonella, Anaplasma, and Ehrlichia) in Haemaphysalis longicornis and Ixodes sinensis ticks from China. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis; 8(6): 791-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18637722
(23) Meng Z, Jiang LP, Lu QY, Cheng SY, Ye JL and Zhan L (2008) Detection of co-infection with Lyme spirochetes and spotted fever group rickettsiae in a group of Haemaphysalis longicornis. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi; 29 (12): 1217–1220. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19173967
(24) Jongejan F and Uilenberg G (2004) The global importance of ticks. Parasitology ; 129, S3–S14. http://www.cbpv.com.br/artigos/CBPV_artigo_017.pdf
(25) Lee MJ and Chae JS (2010) Molecular Detection of Ehrlichia chaffeensis and Anaplasma bovis in the Salivary Glands from Haemaphysalis longicornis Ticks. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases; 10(4): 411-413. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19874189
(26) Bovine anaemia caused by Theileria orientalis group. NSW Govt. Primary Industries:
http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/animal/info-vets/theileria Full fact sheet/pdf: http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/404679/Bovine-anaemia-caused-by-Theileria-orientalis-group-Primefact-1110.pdf
(27) Theileriosis in Australia – an emerging disease: Accessed July 2012
http://www.petalia.com.au/Templates/StoryTemplate_Process.cfm?specie=Beef&story_no=2161
(28) Ikadai H, Sasaki M, Ishida H, Matsuu A, Igarashi I, Fujisaki K and Ovamada T (2007). Molecular evidence of Babesia equi transmission in Haemaphysalis longicornis. Am J Trop Med Hyg; 76(4):694-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17426172
(29) Liu J, Yin H, Liu G, Guan G, Ma M, Liu A, Liu Z, Li Y, Ren Q, Dang Z, Gao J, Bai Q, Zhao H and Luo J (2008) Discrimination of Babesia major and Babesia ovata based on ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region sequences of rRNA gene. Parasitol Res; ;102(4):709-13. Epub 2007 Dec 7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18066598
Babesia
(12) Senanayake SN, Paparini A, Latimer M, Andriolo K, Dasilva AJ, Wilson H, Xayavong MV, Collignon PJ, Jeans P and Irwin PJ (2012). First report of human babesiosis in Australia. Med J Aust 196(5):350-352.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22432676
https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2012/196/5/first-report-human-babesiosis-australia
(13) First case of babesiosis in Australia baffles scientists. May 2012. Science Network Western Australia: Accessed August 2012. http://www.sciencewa.net.au/topics/health-a-medicine/item/1451-first-case-of-babesiosis-in-australia-baffles-scientists
